Such English bookbindings of an early date as still exist are, as a rule, bound in dark brown goatskin or brown sheepskin. The earliest notices about bookbindings are to be found in some of the wardrobe accounts of Edward IV., but of the many bindings which were made for that king, the only remaining sign now left is a loose cover in the library of Westminster Abbey; it is ornamented with a panel stamp bearing the king’s arms, with supporters. In Mediæval times, books, mostly religious, were generally written, copied, illuminated, and bound in the monasteries themselves, and were frequently of large size. After the date at which printing was introduced into Europe, about the middle of the fifteenth century, books became commoner, and very soon, as a general rule, smaller, the printer, binder, and publisher usually combining in his own person the functions hitherto performed by separate artists and artificers,—the illuminators, scribes, silversmiths, goldsmiths, jewellers, enamellers, and workers in leather, wood, or ivory. In short, the art of producing books became in every way a less ornamental and a commoner one. It is disappointing that no single specimen of the rich Mediæval style of bookbinding exists of English workmanship. Such bindings were undoubtedly made here, and numerous drawings of them are to be seen in contemporary manuscript. It is certain that the intrinsic value of these covers attracted the attention of some of our sovereigns, especially the early Tudors, and whenever they were of any value at all, the crucible accounts for their disappearance. Luckily the manuscripts themselves, now infinitely more valuable than the gold and silver which formerly covered them, have in innumerable instances been carefully preserved unhurt. But it is some comfort to know that much beautiful work of the kind we have so unfortunately lost here can be seen and studied in Dublin, at the Royal Irish Academy and other institutions. In that city are to be seen noble specimens of the old book shrines, or covers, which protected the valuable manuscripts, illuminated sometimes by the ancient Irish scribes in such richness that they have never been excelled in beauty. These covers are in all probability nearly the same as the English ones were; they bear ornamentation of a similar Gothic character, nearly analogous to the Anglo-Saxon styles, and the jewels are cut and set in the same way as is found in old English jewellers’ work. The “cumdach,” or cover, of Molaise’s Gospels, that of the Stowe missal and “Dimma’s book,” are all beautiful examples. The Irish jewellers were justly celebrated workmen; they migrated largely to the Continent, and traces of their skill often show on Byzantine bindings made from about the ninth to the eleventh centuries. The older part of the magnificent cover of the Gospels of Lindau is Irish work. This was shown in 1891 at the Burlington Fine Art Club, and until lately was the property of the Earl of Ashburnham. It is one of the most gorgeous bookbindings in existence. In some Eastern countries bordering on Europe, especially the north of Africa and parts of Asia, books were bound in leather and ornamented with gold at a very early date. Signs of such work are found on bindings of the twelfth century onwards, but it is always rare, and only sparingly used. The manner of working the gold differs considerably from the way it is treated now. Persian, Arabian, and Egyptian work of this sort is of great interest, and well deserves more attention and examination than it has yet received. It even seems that some kind of gilding on books was practised in England as early as 1480, as appears from one of the accounts of Piers Courteys, keeper of the King’s Great Wardrobe in the City of London; but there is not enough information given to enable us to say what sort of gilding this was, neither do the existing specimens throw any definite light on this particular point.